SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF OBASANJO REGIME

INTRODUCTION

National image both at home and abroad is an ethical issue. It may appear intangible but the benefits and advantages flowing from a good image are unquantifiable. Good image-building and sustenance are the major determinants that dictate the level of influence and relevance of a state in international politics. Good image ensures a level of credibility and respect for state in the comity of nations. Contrarily to this, bad image and suffering of integrity and credibility crisis deny a nation the required respect by other states. This portrays the state as a pariah state, which does not deserve to be respected and honored by other states. A state with image crisis is difficult to market or advertise in the ‘diplomatic market.’ Thus, laundering the battered image of such nation in the international arena is a difficult task.

Nigeria’s image crisis has historical foundation and its dynamics during the long period of military regime (1983-1999). Military dictators could make any meaning progress in promoting the nations image in the global politics through their foreign policy objectives. Contributing to this was the nature of governance itself. States were not willing to associate with other states that re ruled by military dictators. During Abache’s regime, Nigeria foreign relations were hampered by the brutal violation human rights, corruption, and lack of respect and insensitivity for the international community. The consequence of Abache’s behavioral attitude towards the international system was the unprecedented global outrage on Nigeria and the subsequent isolation of the country in the international system notably by the Commonwealth, European Union (EU) and the United states.

With the reintroduction of democracy on May 29, 1999 and inauguration Olusegun Obasanjo as President, his government face the challenges of restoring Nigeria’s lost glory and re-integration into the world politics. This he did by engaging in a deft shuttle diplomacy across the major capitals of the globe. It is on this background that this paper examines the impacts of Obasanjo shuttle diplomacy on the development of Nigeria. In dealing with this issue, the study is divided into six sections. The first is the introduction while the second gives conceptual clarification. The third is analyses of President Obasanjo’s shuttle diplomacy (image-building) interventions since the emerging democracy inaugurated in May, 1999 while the four section look at the impact on national development and finally general conclusion.

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

Shuttle Diplomacy:  shuttle diplomacy is the action of an outside party in serving as an intermediary between (or among) principals in a dispute, without direct principal-to-principal contact. Originally and usually, the process entails successive travel by the intermediary, from the working location of one principal, to that of another.

It is a diplomatic negotiations conducted by an official intermediary who travels frequently between the nations involved. Is the discussions between two or more countries, in which someone travels between the different countries, talking to the governments involved, carrying messages, and suggesting ways of dealing with problems

They, in addition, recalled their ambassadors and High Commissioners from Nigeria (The Editor, 1995:1-2). The junta’s regime of human rights abuses include the conviction of some retired and serving soldiers for fathom coups against the administration in 1995 including a former Head of State, General Olusegun Obasanjo, who was an unrepentant critic of the regime for its human rights violations. Indeed, it was under the Abacha regime that the nation’s image reached zero level, and the character of the state as a pariah became much more pronounced. The nation and Nigerians lost respect and prestige internationally.

OBASANJO’S SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY

President Olusegun Obasanjo at inauguration in May, 1999, inherited a country with a battered image at home and abroad. In his determination to regain Nigeria’s lost glory and re-integrate it  into the world politics, he embarked on a deft shuttle diplomacy across the major capitals of the world. The grand strategy seeks the conversion of foreign policy activities into concrete achievements which are of direct benefit to Nigeria. The main objective is “peace, security and prosperity through friendship”. The President, during his extensive foreign trips, addressed the United Nations (UN), ECOWAS, the Group of 8 (G-8), Group 77 (G-77), the Commonwealth of Nations, African Union (AU) European Union (EU) and the host of other actors in the international arena (e.g. heads of states).

President Obasanjo had to convince the international community that it would not be sufficient to return power to civilians without seeking to address some critical socio economic problems confronting the Country. He believed that there was need for a one-to-one discussion with relevant world leaders on debt relief, economic assistance, investment, regional security, enhanced international cooperation etc. He also held periodic meetings with the Nigerians in the countries that he visited in order to discuss issues of common interest and update them on government policies, as well as possible ways they can help move the country forward. He helped Nigeria regain her lost status of being the hub of air and sea transportation in Africa which was severely affected during the Abacha regime. Nigeria played a central role in the formation of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM). Obasanjo, through a US-contracted military outfit, restructured the Nigerian Military Professionals Resource Incorporation (MPRI) (Garuba, 2008:15-16

President Obasanjo’s shuttle diplomacy also recorded some success in trying to reestablish air-link between Nigeria and United States, Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (IPPA) with Germany, Trade Pact with India, and renewal of faith of foreign investors in the good future of Nigeria, especially as expressed by the many trade delegations that visited the country from Japan, Denmark, Ghana, Turkey, France, Germany and Belgium during his regime. In addition, President Obasanjo was able to recover most of the stolen Nigeria funds in foreign banks located in Belgium, Switzerland, Britain, America and Germany.

POSITIVE IMPACT OF OBASANJO’S SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Nigeria achieved significant gains through the Obasanjo regime’s shuttle diplomacy. Apart from the psychological relief following its reintegration and accommodations into the world affairs, Nigeria had assumed a leadership role in several international organizations notably the ECOWAS, AU, and G-77. This yielded some economic dividends for the country which include the increase Development Finance Inflow (DFI), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Portfolio investments (Ikuomola, 2005:1), the Paris Club cancelled $18 billion of the country’s over $30 billion external debt (Chiejina, 2005:1), a gesture which signifies the Club’s confidence in the country’s economy and credibility as an external debtor. Obasanjo shuttle diplomacy was the main engine for the influx of FDI into the country. What his regime did was: enabling the adoption of foreign policy towards reintegration of the country into the comity of nations;  image building to help create an awareness of the conducive and stable macroeconomic environment that abounds for foreign investors to operate; and resulting in greater establishment and resuscitation of bilateral/multilateral investment relations for home advantage.

At the domestic level, his government embarked on a reform program in late 2003 tagged the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). The leadership also undertook a far-reaching privatization programme. Freedom of expression and of the press was observed, and human rights violations have been reduced from the time of military rule. Controls over foreign investment have been loosened through investment laws refined to allow an appropriate treatment and protection of foreign investment. Since 1999, the BPE has raised over $4 billion by privatizing and concessioning more than 140 enterprises, including cement manufacturing firms, banks, hotels, and vehicle assembly plants.

NEGETIVE IMPACT OF OBASANJO’S SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Consequently, upon the realization of the damage that had been done to the international image of Nigeria and the likely disadvantaged position this would foist on the country in taking maximum advantage of globalization, the regime of Obasanjo set out early through shuttle diplomacy to redress the image problem of the country. In essence, the task before the new administration was how to change the pariah status of Nigeria and regain the lost ground in international reckoning.

Furthermore, Obasanjo succeeded in re-positioning Nigeria to take its rightful place among the comity of civilized nations by “re-branding” her foreign policy especially through personalization of the process and economic diplomacy. Despite Obasanjo’s lofty achievements in Nigeria’s foreign policy circle, a number of factors connived to dent the country’s international image, and by implication blight Obasanjo’s laudable legacy. These include, but not limited to the following: the controversial US $30b debt negotiation and eventual “forgiveness” in 2006; the contested agreement on Bakassi Peninsula territory (Green Tree Agreement) facilitated by the United Nations (UN) between Nigeria and Cameroun in 2006; and the attempt to subvert the constitution in April 2006 to extend his tenure in office.

CONCLUSION

With the  Nigerian economy suffering severe blow during the prolonged years of military rule of Babangida, Abacha and Abubakar's regimes. Life became miserable, while opportunism and greed thrived in the socio-political and economic environment of the country. The economy was battered and at the verge of collapse as social policy, economic and political institutions were undermined. The policy errors of the past regimes had seriously affected the position of the Nigerian economy. Political and policy instability discouraged foreign investment despite the huge domestic market and the strategic location of the nation.

However, the Obasanjo's administration took certain decisive steps to put in place an enabling environment for the thriving of democracy, regaining international respectability and credibility and putting the economy on the path of sustainable growth and development. It is noteworthy that some of the measures taken by the administration which include the inauguration of Anti-corruption bill; monitoring domestic and international campaign to recover looted public assets; introduction of Universal Basic Education, addressing the energy crisis, establishment of a Poverty Alleviation Programme, the upward review of the minimum wage among other things are good steps in the right direction. The administration also promoted private sector investment in order to achieve rapid economic growth and development. Also, One of the government's biggest macroeconomic achievements of Obasanjo’s shuttle diplomacy has been the sharp reduction in its external debt, which declined from 36% of GDP in 2004 to less than 4% of GDP in 2007. On December 17, the United States and seven other Paris Club nations signed debt reduction agreements with Nigeria for $18 billion in debt reduction, with the proviso that Nigeria pays back its remaining $12 billion in debt by March 2006 (Osagie, 2007). Foreign investors are now competing to come and take advantage of nigeria’s large market, friendly population, cheap but qualitative labour and abundant mineral resources.

REFERENCES

Adeniji, Oluyemi, (2004); New Direction in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy; in Bolaji A. Akinterinwa,(ed) Nigeria’s New Foreign Policy Thrust: Essays in Honour of Ambassador Oluyemi Adeniji; Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.

Akinterinwa, Bola .A. (2004a); Concentricism in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy; in Bolaji A. Akinterinwa,(ed) Nigeria’s New Foreign Policy Thrust: Essays in Honour of Ambassador Oluyemi Adeniji; Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.

Chiejina, N. (2005)”$18b slashed off Nigeria’s debt” The Comet, Lagos, Turning-Point Newspapers, July 1, p.1

Federal Republic of Nigeria. Obasanjo' s Economic Direction (1999 - 2000) April 2000.

Ikuomola, V. (2005a)” Obasanjo in France on Investments, debt relief” The Comet, Lagos, Turning-point Newspaper, May 24, p.3.

Ikuomola, V. (2005a)” Obasanjo in France on Investments, debt relief” The Comet, Lagos, Turning-point Newspaper, May 24, p.3.

Suraj M. and Olusola A. (2001) The Nigerian Economy Under Obasanjo, Development Policy Management Network Bulletin, September 2001 edition

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

INTRODUCTION

International law is a distinctive part of the general structure of international relations. In contemplating responses to a particular international situation, states usually consider relevant international laws. Although considerable attention is invariably focused on violations of international law, states generally are careful to ensure that their actions conform to the rules and principles of international law, because acting otherwise would be regarded negatively by the international community. The rules of international law are rarely enforced by military means or even by the use of economic sanctions. Instead, the system is sustained by reciprocity or a sense of enlightened self-interest. States that breach international rules suffer a decline in credibility that may prejudice them in future relations with other states. Thus, a violation of a treaty by one state to its advantage may induce other states to breach other treaties and thereby cause harm to the original violator. Furthermore, it is generally realized that consistent rule violations would jeopardize the value that the system brings to the community of states, international organizations, and other actors.

The UN Security Council may authorize the use of force to compel states to comply with its decisions, but only in specific and limited circumstances; essentially, there must be a prior act of aggression or the threat of such an act. Moreover, any such enforcement action can be vetoed by any of the council’s five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Because there is no standing UN military, the forces involved must be assembled from member states on an ad hoc basis. (Shaw, 2014)

Definition of terms

International law is distinct from international comity, which comprises legally nonbinding practices adopted by states for reasons of courtesy (e.g., the saluting of the flags of foreign warships at sea). In addition, the study of international law, or public international law, is distinguished from the field of conflict of laws, or private international law, which is concerned with the rules of municipal law as international lawyers term the domestic law of states of different countries where foreign elements are involved. (Byers (2001)

 

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EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

Beginnings

There was little scope for an international law in the period of ancient and medieval empires, and its modern beginnings coincide, therefore, with the rise of national states after the Middle Ages. Rules of maritime intercourse and rules respecting diplomatic agents (see diplomatic service) soon came into existence. At the beginning of the 17th cent., the great multitude of small independent states, which were finding international lawlessness intolerable, prepared the way for the favorable reception given to the De jure belli ac pacis [concerning the law of war and peace] (1625) of Hugo Grotius, the first comprehensive formulation of international law. Though not formally accepted by any nation, his opinions and observations were afterward regularly consulted, and they often served as a basis for reaching agreement in international disputes. The most significant principle he enunciated was the notion of sovereignty and legal equality of all states. Other important writers on international law were Cornelius van Bynkershoek, Georg F. von Martens, Christian von Wolff, and Emerich Vattel.

Historical development

International law reflects the establishment and subsequent modification of a world system founded almost exclusively on the notion that independent sovereign states are the only relevant actors in the international system. The essential structure of international law was mapped out during the European Renaissance, though its origins lay deep in history and can be traced to cooperative agreements between peoples in the ancient Middle East. Among the earliest of these agreements were a treaty between the rulers of Lagash and Umma (in the area of Mesopotamia) in approximately 2100 bce and an agreement between the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and Hattusilis III, the king of the Hittites, concluded in 1258 bce. A number of pacts were subsequently negotiated by various Middle Eastern empires. The long and rich cultural traditions of ancient Israel, the Indian subcontinent, and China were also vital in the development of international law. In addition, basic notions of governance, of political relations, and of the interaction of independent units provided by ancient Greek political philosophy and the relations between the Greek city-states constituted important sources for the evolution of the international legal system.

Many of the concepts that today underpin the international legal order were established during the Roman Empire. The jus gentium (Latin: “law of nations”), for example, was invented by the Romans to govern the status of foreigners and the relations between foreigners and Roman citizens. In accord with the Greek concept of natural law, which they adopted, the Romans conceived of the jus gentium as having universal application. In the Middle Ages, the concept of natural law, infused with religious principles through the writings of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) and the theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25–1274), became the intellectual foundation of the new discipline of the law of nations, regarded as that part of natural law that applied to the relations between sovereign states. (Byers (2001)

After the collapse of the western Roman Empire in the 5th century ce, Europe suffered from frequent warring for nearly 500 years. Eventually, a group of nation-states emerged, and a number of supranational sets of rules were developed to govern interstate relations, including canon law, the law merchant (which governed trade), and various codes of maritime law—e.g., the 12th-century Rolls of Oléron, named for an island off the west coast of France, and the Laws of Wisby (Visby), the seat of the Hanseatic League until 1361. In the 15th century the arrival of Greek scholars in Europe from the collapsing Byzantine Empire and the introduction of the printing press spurred the development of scientific, humanistic, and individualist thought, while the expansion of ocean navigation by European explorers spread European norms throughout the world and broadened the intellectual and geographic horizons of western Europe. The subsequent consolidation of European states with increasing wealth and ambitions, coupled with the growth in trade, necessitated the establishment of a set of rules to regulate their relations. In the 16th century the concept of sovereignty provided a basis for the entrenchment of power in the person of the king and was later transformed into a principle of collective sovereignty as the divine right of kings gave way constitutionally to parliamentary or representative forms of government. Sovereignty also acquired an external meaning, referring to independence within a system of competing nation-states. (Shaw, 2014)  

Early writers who dealt with questions of governance and relations between nations included the Italian lawyers Bartolo da Sassoferrato (1313/14–1357), regarded as the founder of the modern study of private international law, and Baldo degli Ubaldi (1327–1400), a famed teacher, papal adviser, and authority on Roman and feudal law. The essence of the new approach, however, can be more directly traced to the philosophers of the Spanish Golden Age of the 16th and 17th centuries. Both Francisco de Vitoria (1486–1546), who was particularly concerned with the treatment of the indigenous peoples of South America by the conquering Spanish forces, and Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) emphasized that international law was founded upon the law of nature. In 1598 Italian jurist Alberico Gentili (1552–1608), considered the originator of the secular school of thought in international law, published De jure belli libri tres (1598; Three Books on the Law of War), which contained a comprehensive discussion of the laws of war and treaties. Gentili’s work initiated a transformation of the law of nature from a theological concept to a concept of secular philosophy founded on reason. The Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) has influenced the development of the field to an extent unequaled by any other theorist, though his reputation as the father of international law has perhaps been exaggerated. Grotius excised theology from international law and organized it into a comprehensive system, especially in De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625; On the Law of War and Peace). Grotius emphasized the freedom of the high seas, a notion that rapidly gained acceptance among the northern European powers that were embarking upon extensive missions of exploration and colonization around the world. (Shaw, 2014)  

The scholars who followed Grotius can be grouped into two schools, the naturalists and the positivists. The former camp included the German jurist Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–94), who stressed the supremacy of the law of nature. In contrast, positivist writers, such as Richard Zouche (1590–1661) in England and Cornelis van Bynkershoek (1673–1743) in the Netherlands, emphasized the actual practice of contemporary states over concepts derived from biblical sources, Greek thought, or Roman law. These new writings also focused greater attention on the law of peace and the conduct of interstate relations than on the law of war, as the focus of international law shifted away from the conditions necessary to justify the resort to force in order to deal with increasingly sophisticated interstate relations in areas such as the law of the sea and commercial treaties. The positivist school made use of the new scientific method and was in that respect consistent with the empiricist and inductive approach to philosophy that was then gaining acceptance in Europe. Elements of both positivism and natural law appear in the works of the German philosopher Christian Wolff (1679–1754) and the Swiss jurist Emerich de Vattel (1714–67), both of whom attempted to develop an approach that avoided the extremes of each school. During the 18th century, the naturalist school was gradually eclipsed by the positivist tradition, though, at the same time, the concept of natural rights which played a prominent role in the American and French revolutions was becoming a vital element in international politics. In international law, however, the concept of natural rights had only marginal significance until the 20th century.

Positivism’s influence peaked during the expansionist and industrial 19th century, when the notion of state sovereignty was buttressed by the ideas of exclusive domestic jurisdiction and nonintervention in the affairs of other states ideas that had been spread throughout the world by the European imperial powers. In the 20th century, however, positivism’s dominance in international law was undermined by the impact of two world wars, the resulting growth of international organizations e.g., the League of Nations, founded in 1919, and the UN, founded in 1945 and the increasing importance of human rights. Having become geographically international through the colonial expansion of the European powers, international law became truly international in the first decades after World War II, when decolonization resulted in the establishment of scores of newly independent states. The varying political and economic interests and needs of these states, along with their diverse cultural backgrounds, infused the hitherto European-dominated principles and practices of international law with new influences. (Shaw, 2014)  

The development of international law both its rules and its institutions is inevitably shaped by international political events. From the end of World War II until the 1990s, most events that threatened international peace and security were connected to the Cold War between the Soviet Union and its allies and the U.S.-led Western alliance. The UN Security Council was unable to function as intended, because resolutions proposed by one side were likely to be vetoed by the other. The bipolar system of alliances prompted the development of regional organizations e.g., the Warsaw Pact organized by the Soviet Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) established by the United States and encouraged the proliferation of conflicts on the peripheries of the two blocs, including in Korea, Vietnam, and Berlin. Furthermore, the development of norms for protecting human rights proceeded unevenly, slowed by sharp ideological divisions. (Byers (2001)

The Cold War also gave rise to the coalescence of a group of nonaligned and often newly decolonized states, the so-called “Third World,” whose support was eagerly sought by both the United States and the Soviet Union. The developing world’s increased prominence focused attention upon the interests of those states, particularly as they related to decolonization, racial discrimination, and economic aid. It also fostered greater universalism in international politics and international law. The ICJ’s statute, for example, declared that the organization of the court must reflect the main forms of civilization and the principal legal systems of the world. Similarly, an informal agreement among members of the UN requires that nonpermanent seats on the Security Council be apportioned to ensure equitable regional representation; 5 of the 10 seats have regularly gone to Africa or Asia, two to Latin America, and the remainder to Europe or other states. Other UN organs are structured in a similar fashion.

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s increased political cooperation between the United States and Russia and their allies across the Northern Hemisphere, but tensions also increased between states of the north and those of the south, especially on issues such as trade, human rights, and the law of the sea. Technology and globalization—the rapidly escalating growth in the international movement in goods, services, currency, information, and persons—also became significant forces, spurring international cooperation and somewhat reducing the ideological barriers that divided the world, though globalization also led to increasing trade tensions between allies such as the United States and the European Union (EU).

Since the 1980s, globalization has increased the number and sphere of influence of international and regional organizations and required the expansion of international law to cover the rights and obligations of these actors. Because of its complexity and the sheer number of actors it affects, new international law is now frequently created through processes that require near-universal consensus. In the area of the environment, for example, bilateral negotiations have been supplemented and in some cases replaced by multilateral ones, transmuting the process of individual state consent into community acceptance. Various environmental agreements and the Law of the Sea treaty (1982) have been negotiated through this consensus-building process. International law as a system is complex. Although in principle it is “horizontal,” in the sense of being founded upon the concept of the equality of states one of the basic principles of international law in reality some states continue to be more important than others in creating and maintaining international law. (Shaw, 2014)  

Development to World War I

The growth of international law came largely through treaties concluded among states accepted as members of the "family of nations," which first included the states of Western Europe, then the states of the New World, and, finally, the states of Asia and other parts of the world. The United States contributed much to the laws of neutrality and aided in securing recognition of the doctrine of freedom of the seas (see seas, freedom of the). The provisions of international law were ignored in the Napoleonic period, but the Congress of Vienna (see Vienna, Congress of) reestablished and added much, particularly in respect to international rivers and the classification and treatment of diplomatic agents. The Declaration of Paris (see Paris, Declaration of) abolished privateering, drew up rules of contraband, and stipulated rules of blockade. The Geneva Convention (1864) provided for more humane treatment of the wounded. The last quarter of the 19th century saw many international conventions concerning prisoners of war, communication, collision and salvage at sea, protection of migrating bird and sea life, and suppression of prostitution. Resort to arbitration of disputes became more frequent. The lawmaking conventions of the Hague Conferences represent the chief development of international law before World War I. The Declaration of London (see London, Declaration of) contained a convention of prize law, which, although not ratified, is usually followed. At the Pan-American Congresses, many lawmaking agreements affecting the Western Hemisphere have been signed.

Effect of the World Wars

In World War I, no strong nations remained on the sidelines to give effective backing to international law, and the concept of third party arbitration was again endangered; many of the standing provisions of international law were violated. New modes of warfare presented new problems in the laws of war, but attempts after the war to effect disarmament and to prohibit certain types of weapons (see war, laws of) failed, as the outbreak and course of World War II showed. The end of hostilities in 1945 saw the world again faced with grave international problems, including rectification of boundaries, care of refugees, and administration of the territory of the defeated enemy (see trusteeship, territorial). The inadequacy of the League of Nations and of such idealistic renunciations of war as the Kellogg-Briand Pact led to the formation of the United Nations as a body capable of compelling obedience to international law and maintaining peace. After World War II, a notable advance in international law was the definition and punishment of war crimes. Attempts at a general codification of international law, however, proceeded slowly under the International Law Commission established in 1947 by the United Nations.

CONCLUSION

The nuclear age and the space age have led to new developments in international law. The basis of space law was developed in the 1960s under United Nations auspices. Treaties have been signed mandating the internationalization of outer space (1967) and other celestial bodies (1979). The 1963 limited test ban treaty (see disarmament, nuclear) prohibited nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater. The nuclear nonproliferation treaty (1968) attempted to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. The agreements of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, signed by the United States and the USSR in 1972, limited defensive and offensive weapon systems. This was first of many international arms treaties signed between the two nations until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Other treaties have covered the internationalization of Antarctica (1959), narcotic interdiction (1961), satellite communications (1963), and terrorism (1973). The Law of the Sea treaty (1982, in force from 1994) clarified the status of territorial waters and the exploitation of the seabed. Environmental issues have led to a number of international treaties, including agreements covering fisheries (1958), endangered species (1973), global warming and biodiversity (1992). Since the signing of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947, there have been numerous international trade agreements. The European Union (prior to 1993, the European Community) has made moves toward the establishment of a regional legal system; in 1988 a Court of First Instance was established to serve as a court of original jurisdiction on certain economic matters. The establishment of the International Criminal Court (2002), with jurisdiction over war crimes, crimes against humanity, and related matters, marked a major step forward in international law despite the United States' repudiation of the treaty under President George W. Bush.

REFERENCES

Malcolm Shaw, (2014)   International law Alternate title: public international law ;Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Michael Byers (2001)The Role of Law in International Politics: Essays in International Relations and International Law Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2010

  

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